Careers in pharmacy (Summer 09)

Career experiences in Pharmacy
Summary
Introduction
Theoretical debate
Method
Research findings
Availability and awareness of flexible working
Difference between full- and part-time workers key to segregation
Discussion
Bibliography

Career experiences in Pharmacy

Employment choices of white and minority ethnic women pharmacists: personal preference or organisational constraints?

Summary

Kelly Rowe, PhD student at The Centre for Pharmacy Workforce studies at the University of Manchester, presents some preliminary findings from her research into the career experiences of women in the pharmacy profession and specifically the employment choices of minority ethnic women. Kelly Rowe finds that a range of factors influence women’s job choices, and that all women, regardless of ethnic origin, experience organisational barriers, which may be perceived as discriminatory. Although some women appeared to make their decisions based on personal preferences, there is evidence that other factors such as childcare constraints and organisational structures are also affecting employment choices

Introduction

Empirical analysis of pharmacy workforce census data indicates there is evidence of gender and ethnic disadvantage in the pharmacy workforce (Hassell, et al, 1997, 1998, Hassell, 2003). More than half of all registered pharmacists are female, so pharmacy can now be considered a ‘feminised’ profession (Hassell, 2003). However, men still dominate the senior positions in the organisational hierarchy. Last year 50% of newly qualified pharmacists were from a minority ethnic background, with Asian pharmacists by far the largest single group. Recent research further indicates that the labour market behaviour and employment positions of minority ethnic women (ME) do not necessarily mirror those of white women. Asian female pharmacists are more likely to be employed in the lower end of the organisational hierarchy than white women. Paradoxically, Asian women are more likely to work full-time. Thus while all women pharmacists are more likely to be segregated in the organisational hierarchy than men, it may be argued that ME women are more likely to experience employment disadvantage than white women. To date there is limited research as to why this polarisation exists. This study is, however essential in light of recent statistics from the Pharmaceutical Register (2008) which indicate that the number of women, particularly minority ethnic women practising pharmacy is rising. Given that their contribution to the pharmacy profession is likely to continue to rise over the next few years, it is essential, from a workforce planning perspective, to discover more about the employment choices ME women make regarding their work time arrangements, as they may have significant implications for future workforce supply.

The primary aim of this study is thus to compare the career experiences of women in the pharmacy profession in order to understand if organisational culture, particularly informal discriminatory practices are limiting the choices of all women pharmacists in the pharmacy profession.

Theoretical debate

Academic debate for the continued segregation of women in the pharmacy profession can essentially be divided into ‘two conflicting’ theoretical approaches; between those who suggest gender inequality is a result of women’s autonomous choices (Hakim, 1992, 1998, 2000, 2002), and those who argue organisational constraints limit women’s career progression (Lane, 1999, Tanner et al, 1996, Walby, 1988).

Catherine Hakim’s preference theory suggests that on the whole, women are uncommitted workers who prefer to prioritise domestic responsibilities over career progression. Gender segregation in the pharmacy profession is thus argued to be the product of women’s autonomous choices regarding their employment preferences. The polarisation between white and ME women pharmacists is thus the result of different cultural preferences rather than organisational discrimination (Hakim, 1992, 1998, 2000, 2002).

In contrast, it is suggested gender differences in the labour market are the product of organisational culture and workforce practices (Halford and Leonard, 2001, Lane, 1999, Lane and Piercy, 2003, Brown and Jones, 2004, Tomlinson, 2006). In examining the career experiences of part-time workers, several theorists suggest organisational practices are structured to disadvantage those workers who do not meet the masculine ideal of full-time working (Lane and Piercy, 2003). ‘Working time preferences’ are thus argued to significantly disadvantage certain women in the labour market (Fagan, 2001, Tomlinson, 2006).

Similarly, research regarding ethnic minority women in the general labour market indicates that ethnic minority women are more likely to face organisational barriers than white women (EOC, 2006). Negative gender and ethnic stereotypes may thus lead to employment disadvantage for women, particularly for ME women who may experience discrimination on the basis of ethnicity as well as gender

A gendered organisational approach thus highlights how informal organisational practices may undermine formal employment policies aimed at preventing discrimination in the pharmacy profession. The NHS has policies aimed at encouraging gender and racial equality; however, gender segregation continues to exist. Current pharmacy workforce policies may thus be failing to meet legal requirements, enforced by the government which requires employers to promote equal opportunities. More information is thus needed to identify which barriers, if any, are preventing women pharmacists from fulfilling their employment preferences.

Initial analysis indicates that both personal preferences and employee attitudes and perceptions of women and part-time work are essential in understanding women pharmacists’ employment choices.

Method

Face to face in-depth interviews were undertaken between June 2007 and February 2008 with white and ME women pharmacists. A list of pharmacists in the North West of England was compiled from the pharmaceutical register, and stratified according to age group, ethnic status and sector of practice. 616 pharmacists were identified: 475 white and 141 ME women. Letters of invitation to participate in the preliminary qualitative stage of the research were sent to all ME pharmacists to ensure a high response rate, and a 15% sample was selected to participate from the sample of white women pharmacists. Questions regarding employment choices were posed. All interviews were recorded and transcribed verbatim and all transcripts were subjected to thematic analysis using NVivo, software for analysing qualitative data.

Research findings

Forty women initially agreed to be interviewed, and interviews eventually took place with 10 white women and 18 ME women. A variety of themes were identified from the interviews.

Issues such as flexible working and family friendly working contracts were considered attractive, especially for those women with children. Further, regardless of ethnic origin, the majority of interviewees considered pharmacy to be a ‘good job for a woman’ for the perceived opportunities to work part-time.

Availability and awareness of flexible working

There was, however, evidence of barriers to working flexibly, especially in the community sector, as job-sharing and term-time contracts were often unavailable. Interestingly, a small number of women were unaware that job sharing were supported by their employer, indicating that informal working practices are acting as a barrier to flexible working in the community pharmacy sector. For those women who were successful in obtaining a flexible working contract, this was often implemented by their direct manager, and had increased job satisfaction. For several women, this meant they could continue in employment, which demonstrates the importance of family friendly contracts and management support in ensuring women can access the working practices they prefer. At the same time from an employer perspective, this also addresses issues concerning the retention of staff.

Women pharmacists in the hospital sector experienced fewer problems in obtaining flexible working contracts. This evidence indicates that a ‘family friendly’ culture is embedded within the NHS organisational structure, enabling women to combine motherhood and employment.

There was limited evidence of external constraints such as childcare affecting the employment preferences of women. Only one woman interviewed had changed her employment hours as a result of high childcare costs. The majority of women used informal forms of childcare, and managed their domestic commitments by working reduced hours. Interestingly, however, working reduced hours was argued to be a personal preference rather than a choice based on external constraints. Gendered ideals regarding motherhood were prevalent, indicating that using informal childcare was a gendered preference rather than a response to organisational or external constraints. This analysis may have significant implications for the future of the pharmacy profession. If women pharmacists prefer part-time lower responsibility positions, policies to encourage career progression and full-time work, such as childcare incentives, may be unsuccessful. Thus from a preference theory perspective, it is argued that future workforce shortages are inevitable as employee policies are unlikely to have a significant effect on encouraging women to work more hours.

However, it is noteworthy that some interviewees recognised they had experienced organisational barriers and discrimination, and this was by no means limited to ME women.

A small number (3/10) of white women also felt that organisational practices limited their employment choices. Interestingly, these women worked part-time and although they emphasised their ‘choice’ in working part-time, it emerged that there was dissatisfaction with the lack of additional training and career progression opportunities available to them. Working practices, a long hour’s culture and negative gender stereotypes which advocate full time working as a management ideal, thus appeared to push some women into lower status practitioner roles. Women without children who worked full time thus would seem to face fewer organisational barriers, and this was seen to be a trend regardless of ethnic origin.

Taking a gendered organisational approach, it is suggested women pharmacists are ‘pushed’ towards preferring part-time roles as traditional gendered ideals underpin organisational structures legitimising the lower status of women in the profession. Organisational practices therefore limit flexible and part time working opportunities to those jobs in the lower echelons of the organisational hierarchy, In order to combine employment and domestic responsibilities, women thus have no choice but to remain in lower status positions. There was certainly some evidence of this in the interviews with those women who has previously worked full-time in community management positions. On returning to work they were downgraded to practitioner positions as their management roles on a part-time or job-sharing basis were unavailable This evidence therefore indicates that although women may have a gendered preference for part-time positions, organisational practices maintain a gendered division of labour by limiting part time work to practitioner positions.

Difference between full- and part-time workers key to segregation

Initial analysis thus indicates that it is the dichotomy between full - and part-time workers rather than gender or ethnicity which is maintaining vertical segregation in the pharmacy profession. However, as the majority of part time workers are women, organisational structures are maintaining gendered segregation in the pharmacy profession It is noteworthy that ME women are less likely to work part time than white women, but are still more likely to be segregated in the organisational hierarchy than white women.

Although the majority of the ME women pharmacists interviewed here reported never experiencing direct ethnic discrimination personally, there was an awareness of its existence. Research in the nursing profession indicates that this may negatively affect the employment experiences of ME women pharmacists, subjecting them to multiple forms of discrimination. It is thus suggested that ME women pharmacists may be at greater risk of experiencing gender discrimination than white women pharmacists (Beishon et al, 1995).

Discussion

Preliminary analysis indicates that a range of factors influence women’s job choices, and that all women, regardless of ethnic origin, experience organisational barriers, which may be perceived as discriminatory. Thus although some women appeared to make their decisions based on personal preferences, there is evidence that other factors such as childcare constraints and organisational structures are also affecting employment choices. Negative gender stereotypes, a long hour’s culture and inflexible working practices may thus act as a barrier to women’s career advancement in the pharmacy profession. And although some women may choose to work part-time, their position in the career structure is a reflection of organisational constraints rather than personal preference. It is, however, noteworthy that the organisational structures within the pharmacy profession are inconsistent, indicating that women in the hospital sector may experience fewer organisational barriers than those women in the community sector.

Due to the small number of interviewees this argument is, nevertheless, not conclusive. This stage of the research is currently being followed up by a quantitative survey in which the initial findings and theoretical debate will be investigated further.

Bibliography

Beishon, Sharon, Virdee, Satnam and Hagell, Ann, 1995 'Nursing in a multi-ethnic NHS'. PSI Publishing London.

Equal opportunities report, 2006 ‘Moving on up? Bangladeshi, Pakistani and Black Caribbean women and work.

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Hakim, Catherine, 1998. ‘Social change and innovation in the labour market: evidence from the census SARs on occupational segregation and labour mobility, part-time work and student jobs, homework and self-employment.’ Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Hakim, Catherine, 2000. ‘Lifestyle choices in the 21st century.’ Oxford University Press.

Hakim, Catherine, 2002 ‘Lifestyle Preferences as Determinants of Women’s Differentiated Labour Market Careers.’ Work and Occupations, Vol. 29, No. 4, 2002, 428-459.

Hakim, Catherine, 2007. ‘Women careers and work life preferences’ British Journal of Guidance and Counselling, Taylor and Francis, Vol 34 Issues 3.

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Hassell Karen, 2000 ‘Ethnic Diversity among pharmacy practitioners: ethnic group participation in pharmacy and implications for workforce issues.’ In ‘Personal and Social Factors in Pharmacy Practice, D. Gard, eds, Blackwell, Oxford

Hassell Karen, 2003. ‘The National Workforce Census: the gendered nature of pharmacy employment in Britain.’ The Pharmaceutical Journal Vol 271.

Lane Nikala, 1999. ‘Inequality in the careers of NHS nurses: A regional case study of qualified nurses in NHS Wales.’ Personnel Review, Volume 28, Number 4, pp. 31-33. Emerald Group Publishing Limited

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Walby, Sylvia, 1988. ‘Gender Segregation at Work.’ Sage.

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